Buddhist Cosmology and Ethics: The Six Realms of Existence, Moral Discipline, and the Path to Liberation

By Bhante Sumitta

Summary

Buddhist cosmology's six realms of existence—hell beings, hungry ghosts, animals, humans, titans, and gods—provide a comprehensive framework for understanding the cycle of rebirth (saṃsāra) and the path to liberation in Buddhist thought. These realms, arising from actions motivated by the three mental poisons of greed, hatred, and delusion, illustrate how karmic consequences determine rebirth destinations, with the lower realms characterized by extreme suffering and the higher realms offering temporary pleasures that remain ultimately unsatisfactory due to their impermanent nature. While traditionally understood as literal cosmological realities, contemporary interpretations view these realms as psychological states reflecting emotional patterns of anger, greed, ignorance, desire, competitiveness, and pride that can be experienced within human existence. The teaching emphasizes that only the human realm provides the optimal conditions for achieving Awakening and escaping the endless cycle of suffering, making ethical conduct through frameworks like the Five Precepts and Ten Good Courses of Action essential for spiritual progress. Ultimately, this cosmological system serves both as a practical guide for moral behavior and a profound teaching on the impermanence of all conditioned existence, revealing that true liberation can only be found through the cultivation of wisdom that transcends attachment to any realm within saṃsāra and leads to the unconditioned peace of nirvāṇa.

Buddhist cosmology presents a comprehensive framework for understanding existence through the doctrine of the six realms (Sanskrit: ṣaḍgati, Pali: chaggati), which describe the various states of rebirth within saṃsāra—the endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.¹ These realms, integral to Buddhist understanding since the earliest texts, represent not merely physical locations but states of consciousness and modes of being that arise from karmic actions.² This cosmological system provides profound insights into the nature of suffering, the impermanence of all conditioned existence, and the ethical framework necessary for liberation through the attainment of nirvāṇa.

The Three Root Causes: Greed, Hatred, and Delusion

Buddhist teaching identifies three fundamental mental poisons (mūla kleśa) that drive the cycle of rebirth and determine which realm a being will enter: greed (lobha), hatred (dosa), and delusion (moha).³ These three unwholesome roots are described in the Aṅguttara Nikāya as the foundation of all suffering and the primary forces that bind beings to saṃsāra.⁴ Understanding these mental states and their corresponding actions provides the key to comprehending both the mechanism of rebirth and the path to liberation.

The Nature of the Six Realms: Lower and Higher Rebirths

The six realms are traditionally categorized into three unfortunate states (dugati) driven by greed, hatred, and delusion: hell beings (naraka), hungry ghosts (preta), and animals (tiryagyoni); and three fortunate states (sugati) arising from better motivations with self-consciousness: humans (manuṣya), titans or demigods (asura), and gods (deva).⁵ The Samyutta Nikaya emphasizes that this process of rebirth is beginningless, fueled by the ignorance and craving of beings.⁶ Importantly, existence in all realms is characterized by impermanence—as the Pali texts state, "sabbe saṅkhārā aniccā" (all conditioned things are impermanent).⁷

Lower Realms: Driven by the Three Poisons

The three lower realms represent the direct consequences of actions motivated by greed, hatred, and delusion. These realms are characterized by extreme suffering and limited opportunity for spiritual development, as beings are consumed by basic survival needs and overwhelming negative emotions.

Hells (Naraka): Realms of Extreme Suffering

The Buddhist conception of hell, termed naraka in Sanskrit or niraya in Pali, represents the most unfortunate realm of existence, arising primarily from actions motivated by hatred and anger. Unlike the eternal damnation found in Abrahamic traditions, Buddhist hells are impermanent states where beings experience the karmic consequences of their actions until that negative karma is exhausted.⁸ The Devadūta Sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya provides detailed descriptions of these realms, presenting them as places of intense suffering resulting from one's own karma rather than divine judgment.⁹

The inhabitants of these realms are dominated by anger and hatred, the very mental states that led to their rebirth there.¹⁰ The Abhidharma-kośa describes the most common system of eight hot hells (uṣṇa naraka) and eight cold hells (śīta naraka).¹¹ In the hot hells, beings experience various forms of torture including being cut with fiery weapons, burned in molten metal, and tormented by hell guardians with iron claws.¹² The Sañjīva or "Reviving" hell exemplifies this suffering: beings attack each other with iron claws until they fall unconscious, only to be revived by cold winds to experience the torment anew.¹³

The cold hells present equally severe suffering through freezing conditions. In the Arbuda hell, described as a "dark, frozen plain surrounded by icy mountains," beings endure endless blizzards while naked and alone.¹⁴ The torments are not random but represent the natural consequences of specific unwholesome actions, particularly those involving violence and the intentional harming of living beings.¹⁵

Hungry Ghosts (Preta): The Realm of Insatiable Greed and Suffering

The hungry ghost realm represents the direct consequence of actions motivated by extreme greed and attachment. Known as preta in Sanskrit, these beings are characterized by their distinctive physical appearance: enormous, bloated stomachs symbolizing insatiable hunger, combined with tiny mouths and throats that prevent satisfaction of their desires.¹⁶ This imagery serves as a powerful metaphor for the futility of attempting to fulfill desires through external means.

The Petavatthu, part of the Pali Canon's Khuddaka Nikaya, contains fifty-one poems describing various types of hungry ghosts and the karmic actions that led to their rebirth.¹⁷ These beings are driven by greed and possessiveness cultivated in previous lives.¹⁸ When they attempt to consume food or drink, it often transforms into filth, fire, or insects in their mouths, leaving them perpetually unsatisfied and suffering.¹⁹

Traditional Buddhist texts describe twenty-four types of hungry ghosts, each suffering specific torments related to their past actions.²⁰ The "needle-mouth" hungry ghosts (śūcīmukha) exemplify this condition—as one text describes: "by that sin I became a ghost with mouth as small as the hole of a needle and body as huge as a mountain. Although I get food I cannot eat."²¹ These beings embody the Buddhist teaching that greed and attachment lead not to satisfaction but to increased suffering.

Animals (Tiryagyoni): Limited by Ignorance and Survival Instincts

The animal realm represents the third of the unfortunate rebirths, characterized primarily by ignorance (avidyā) and instinctual behavior focused on basic survival needs.²² Buddhist cosmology places the animal realm in close proximity to the human realm, explaining why humans can perceive animals while remaining invisible to beings in other realms.²³

Animals are described as having limited intellectual capacity that prevents them from understanding the Dharma or engaging in practices that could lead to spiritual progress.²⁴ Their existence is dominated by the immediate concerns of finding food, avoiding predators, and basic reproduction, leaving little opportunity for the moral and spiritual development necessary for better rebirths.²⁵ This realm serves as a warning about the consequences of willful ignorance and the rejection of wisdom.

Higher Realms: Better Motivations with Self-Consciousness

The three higher realms represent rebirths arising from better motivations combined with self-consciousness, though they still remain within the cycle of saṃsāra and are subject to impermanence.

Human World (Manuṣya): The Optimal Realm for Attaining Awakening

Paradoxically, while the human realm involves significant suffering, it is considered the most advantageous for spiritual development and the unique realm capable of attaining Awakening. Buddhist texts emphasize that human birth provides the unique combination of suffering sufficient to motivate spiritual seeking and pleasure adequate to provide the energy and resources necessary for practice.²⁶ The Anguttara Nikaya notes that human existence is characterized by the pursuit of objects of desire and instrumental goals, yet this very condition creates the possibility for understanding the Four Noble Truths.²⁷

Humans experience a balance of pleasure and pain that makes them neither too comfortable (like gods) nor too distressed (like hell beings) to engage seriously with spiritual practice.²⁸ This realm offers the optimal conditions for encountering the Dharma, developing ethical conduct, and practicing meditation—the three foundations of the Buddhist path.²⁹ The Buddha himself chose human birth for his final existence precisely because of these unique advantages, as only in the human realm can beings directly attain Awakening and liberation from saṃsāra.

Titans (Asura): Powerful but Envious

The titan or demigod realm (asura) represents beings who, while powerful and long-lived, are consumed by jealousy and competitive anger toward the gods.³⁰ These beings can perceive the god realm and are perpetually plotting against the devas, though their efforts always end in failure.³¹ The Digha Nikaya describes asuras as engaging in constant warfare with the gods, driven by envy of divine pleasures they can observe but not fully obtain.³²

This realm serves as a cautionary tale about the dangers of competitiveness and comparison. Despite their considerable powers and relatively pleasant conditions, asuras remain trapped in suffering due to their inability to accept their situation and their obsession with what others possess.³³ Their existence demonstrates how envy and resentment can corrupt even favorable circumstances and prevent spiritual progress.

Gods (Deva): Enjoying Sensual Pleasures but Impermanent

The divine realms represent the most pleasant existence within saṃsāra, yet Buddhist teaching emphasizes their ultimate inadequacy for liberation. The gods (deva) of the sensuous realm (kāmadhātu) enjoy extraordinary pleasures, beautiful environments, and freedom from the gross sufferings experienced in lower realms.³⁴ The Tavatimsa heaven, ruled by Sakka (the Buddhist Indra), exemplifies these pleasures with its magnificent palaces and celestial gardens.³⁵

However, these very pleasures become obstacles to enlightenment. The Digha Nikaya explains that gods are "so full of joy in this realm that they are unable to understand the teaching about the permanent dukkha in samsara."³⁶ Their extreme comfort creates spiritual complacency, and they rarely engage in the practices necessary for liberation.³⁷ Additionally, when their good karma is exhausted, even powerful gods can fall to lower rebirths, including hell realms, demonstrating the impermanent nature of even the most blissful existence.³⁸

The divine realm also demonstrates the danger of pride. Gods often become intoxicated by their powers and pleasures, developing an arrogance that blinds them to the impermanent nature of their condition.³⁹ This pride becomes a significant obstacle to recognizing the need for liberation from saṃsāra itself.

Heavens of Form and Formless Heavens: Refined Bliss and Subtle Attachment

The highest realms in Buddhist cosmology are the Form Realm (rūpadhātu) and Formless Realm (ārūpyadhātu), accessible only to those who have mastered advanced meditative absorptions (jhāna).⁴⁰ These realms represent increasingly refined states of consciousness, characterized by profound peace and bliss far surpassing even the sensuous heavens.⁴¹

The Form Realm consists of sixteen levels corresponding to the four material absorptions, while the Formless Realm contains four levels corresponding to the immaterial absorptions.⁴² Beings in these realms experience extraordinarily long lifespans—some texts describe durations measured in cosmic eons (kalpas).⁴³ The mental states of these gods are characterized by profound equanimity (upekkhā) and subtle forms of bliss.⁴⁴

However, even these exalted states remain impermanent. The Abhidhamma literature emphasizes that when the karma supporting these rebirths is exhausted, beings inevitably fall to lower realms.⁴⁵ More significantly, the very refinement of these states can become a subtle form of attachment. Beings in the formless realms, for instance, may develop attachment to states of infinite consciousness or nothingness, mistaking these for the unconditioned state of nirvāṇa.⁴⁶

The Cycle of Rebirth and the Trap of Saṃsāra

Buddhist cosmology reveals that sentient beings are trapped in an endless cycle, experiencing suffering across all realms of existence. Even the most pleasant divine rebirths are temporary and ultimately unsatisfactory due to their impermanent nature.⁴⁷ The Samyutta Nikaya emphasizes that this cycle has no discernible beginning, as beings have been wandering through various rebirths for immeasurable eons.⁴⁸

The human realm, despite its challenges, offers the unique opportunity to achieve Awakening and escape this cycle entirely. This is because humans possess the optimal combination of suffering that motivates spiritual seeking and the cognitive capacity necessary to understand and practice the Dharma.⁴⁹ The Buddha's teaching thus presents the human birth as extraordinarily precious—more valuable than even rebirth in the highest heavens.

Traditional vs. Modern Interpretations

Traditional View: Literal Cosmological Realities

Traditionally, Buddhist cosmology has been understood as describing literal realms of existence with actual beings inhabiting distinct planes of reality. The Abhidhamma literature provides detailed measurements and descriptions of these realms, treating them as objective cosmological facts.⁵⁰ Classical commentaries such as Buddhaghosa's Visuddhimagga elaborate on the physical characteristics, inhabitants, and mechanisms of rebirth between these realms.⁵¹

Modern Interpretation: Psychological States

Contemporary Buddhist teachers and scholars often interpret the six realms as psychological states that can be experienced within a single human lifetime. In this understanding, the realms represent mental and emotional patterns influenced by specific emotions: anger (hell realm), greed (hungry ghost realm), stupidity (animal realm), desire (human realm), competitiveness (asura realm), and pride (god realm).⁵²

This psychological interpretation makes the teaching immediately relevant to practitioners seeking to understand their own mental states and patterns. Moments of intense anger can be understood as temporary experiences of the hell realm, while periods of insatiable craving reflect the hungry ghost state.⁵³ This approach emphasizes the practical utility of the cosmological framework for self-understanding and spiritual development.

Buddhist Moral Discipline: The Ethical Framework for Liberation

Understanding the six realms provides the foundation for Buddhist ethical practice, as moral discipline (śīla) serves as the primary means to avoid rebirth in lower realms and eventually break the cycle of suffering entirely.⁵⁴ Buddhist ethics operates on the principle that intentional actions (karma) have consequences that determine future rebirths, making moral conduct essential for spiritual progress.⁵⁵

The Three Mental States and Their Consequences

Buddhist psychology identifies three fundamental mental states that drive all actions and determine rebirth destinations:

Attraction/Attachment/Desire/Lust: This involves desire for experiences that reinforce and confirm the sense of self, with attempts to prolong or repeat such experiences.⁵⁶ These states lead to actions that perpetuate the cycle of rebirth, particularly in the human and god realms where attachment to pleasure predominates.

Aversion/Anger/Ill-will/Hatred: This represents reactions against experiences that threaten the ego, with efforts to avoid or push away these experiences.⁵⁷ Actions motivated by aversion lead primarily to rebirth in the hell realms, where anger and violence create conditions of extreme suffering.

Indifference/Ignorance: This involves a lack of concern for experiences not directly related to attraction or aversion, associated with ignorance, confusion, and incorrect understandings.⁵⁸ Ignorance-based actions typically result in rebirth in the animal realm, where consciousness is limited and spiritual development minimal.

Two Key Systems of Moral Discipline

Buddhist tradition has developed comprehensive ethical frameworks to guide practitioners away from unwholesome actions and toward liberation.

Five Precepts (Pañcaśīla): For Lay People

The Five Precepts represent the basic ethical foundation for Buddhist lay practitioners, consisting of specific prohibitions designed to prevent the most harmful actions:⁵⁹

1. Killing (Prāṇātipāta): Refraining from taking the life of any sentient being
2. Stealing (Adattādāna): Abstaining from taking what is not given
3. Sexual Misconduct (Kāmamithyācāra): Avoiding sexual behavior that causes harm
4. Lying (Mṛṣāvāda): Refraining from false speech
5. Drunkenness (Surāmeraya): Abstaining from intoxicants that cloud judgment

The purpose of these precepts extends beyond mere rule-following to fundamental transformation. They serve to prevent rebirth in lower realms by eliminating the actions that create negative karma.⁶⁰ Additionally, observing these precepts develops self-respect and reduces trouble and suffering in the present life.⁶¹ The precepts create a foundation of ethical conduct necessary for deeper spiritual practice, as meditation and wisdom development require a stable moral base.

Ten Good Courses of Action (Daśakuśalakarmapatha)

The Ten Good Courses of Action represent a more comprehensive ethical framework, conceptualized as positive actions framed by refraining from negative behaviors—essentially the opposite of the Ten Bad Courses of Action.⁶²

Ten Bad Courses of Action to Avoid:

Bodily Actions:

• Taking life (prāṇātipāta)
• Stealing (adattādāna)
• Sexual misconduct (kāmamithyācāra)

Verbal Actions:

• Lying (mṛṣāvāda)
• Divisive speech (piśunāvāda)
• Harsh speech (pharuṣavāda)
• Idle chitchat (sambhinnapralāpa)

Mental Actions:

• Covetousness (abhidhyā)
• Malice (vyāpāda)
• Wrong view (mithyādṛṣṭi)⁶³

The purpose of this framework is to guide practitioners toward ethical behavior and promote spiritual development by avoiding harmful actions that create negative karma and perpetuate suffering.⁶⁴ By systematically eliminating unwholesome actions of body, speech, and mind, practitioners purify their conduct and create conditions favorable for higher rebirths and eventual liberation.

Cosmological Significance and Liberation

The six realms serve multiple functions in Buddhist thought. They provide a framework for understanding karmic consequences, illustrate the pervasive nature of suffering even in the most pleasant conditions, and demonstrate the urgency of seeking liberation.⁶⁵ The Buddha's teaching emphasizes that all conditioned existence, regardless of its apparent pleasantness, is ultimately unsatisfactory (dukkha) due to its impermanent nature.⁶⁶

The cosmological system reveals that sentient beings remain trapped across all realms, experiencing various forms of suffering even in the most pleasant divine rebirths. This understanding motivates the serious pursuit of liberation, as it becomes clear that no realm within saṃsāra offers permanent refuge from suffering.⁶⁷ Only the human realm provides the optimal conditions for achieving Awakening and complete escape from this cycle.

Liberation from this cycle requires the development of wisdom (prajñā) that perceives the three characteristics of existence: impermanence (anicca), suffering (dukkha), and non-self (anattā).⁶⁸ Only through this insight can beings transcend the attractions and aversions that perpetuate rebirth in the six realms and attain the unconditioned peace of nirvāṇa.⁶⁹ This liberation represents the ultimate goal of Buddhist practice—complete freedom from the wheel of rebirth and the end of all suffering.

Conclusion

Buddhist cosmology's six realms, coupled with its comprehensive ethical framework, present a sophisticated understanding of existence that encompasses both the potential for profound suffering and the possibility of liberation. Each realm illustrates specific mental states and their consequences, while collectively they demonstrate the pervasive nature of impermanence and the futility of seeking permanent satisfaction within conditioned existence.

The lower realms, driven by greed, hatred, and delusion, showcase the extreme suffering that results from unwholesome actions and mental states. The higher realms, arising from better motivations with self-consciousness, offer temporary respite but remain bound by impermanence and subtle forms of suffering. Only the human realm provides the unique opportunity to achieve Awakening and complete liberation from this cycle.

Buddhist moral discipline serves as the practical means for navigating this cosmological framework. Through the Five Precepts and Ten Good Courses of Action, practitioners develop the ethical foundation necessary for spiritual progress. By understanding the three mental states of attraction, aversion, and indifference, and their karmic consequences, individuals can make conscious choices that lead away from suffering and toward liberation.

This cosmological framework remains relevant both as traditional metaphysical doctrine and as practical psychology, offering insights into human nature and the path to freedom from suffering. Whether interpreted literally or psychologically, the six realms provide a comprehensive map for understanding the mind's patterns and the ethical conduct necessary for spiritual development. The ultimate message is both sobering and hopeful: while all conditioned existence involves suffering, the possibility of complete liberation remains available to those who cultivate wisdom, ethical conduct, and follow the Buddha's path to Awakening.

---

Notes

1. Peter Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 68-72.

2. "Saṃsāra (Buddhism)," Wikipedia, accessed August 22, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saṃsāra_(Buddhism).

3. Rupert Gethin, The Foundations of Buddhism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 119-125.

4. Bhikkhu Bodhi, trans., The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2000), 533-537.

5. Damien Keown, Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 34-37.

6. "Saṃsāra (Buddhism)," Wikipedia.

7. "Impermanence (Buddhism)," Wikipedia, accessed August 22, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impermanence_(Buddhism).

8. "Naraka (Buddhism)," Wikipedia, accessed August 22, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naraka_(Buddhism).

9. "Guide to the Buddhist Hell Realm," Learn Religions, accessed August 22, 2025, https://www.learnreligions.com/buddhist-hell-450118.

10. "The Six Realms of Samsara," Tibetan Buddhist Encyclopedia, accessed August 22, 2025, http://tibetanbuddhistencyclopedia.com/en/index.php/The_Six_Realms_of_Samsara.

11. "Naraka (Buddhism)," Wikipedia.

12. "Naraka Part I: The 8 'Major Hells' in Buddhism & Their Gruesome Punishments," Medium, accessed August 22, 2025, https://medium.com/the-edge-of-the-world/naraka-part-i-the-8-major-hells-in-buddhism-their-gruesome-punishments-956486ce0c1e.

13. "Naraka," Encyclopedia of Buddhism, accessed August 22, 2025, https://encyclopediaofbuddhism.org/wiki/Naraka.

14. "Naraka in Buddhism," Buddha Statues, accessed August 22, 2025, https://www.buddha-statues.co.uk/blog/naraka-in-buddhism/.

15. "Naraka (Buddhism)," Wikipedia.

16. "What Are Hungry Ghosts?" Buddhism A–Z, Lions Roar, accessed August 22, 2025, https://www.lionsroar.com/buddhism/hungry-ghosts/.

17. "Petavatthu: Stories of the Hungry Ghosts," Access to Insight, accessed August 22, 2025, https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/kn/pv/index.html.

18. "Preta," New World Encyclopedia, accessed August 22, 2025, https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Preta.

19. "Hungry ghost," Wikipedia, accessed August 22, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost.

20. "What are Hungry Ghosts? Appearance, Types and Festival," Lotus Buddhas, accessed August 22, 2025, https://lotusbuddhas.com/what-are-hungry-ghosts.html.

21. "Hungry Ghosts: their History and Origin," Kashgar, accessed August 22, 2025, https://kashgar.com.au/blogs/tribal-culture/hungry-ghosts-their-history-and-origin.

22. "Six Paths," Wikipedia, accessed August 22, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six_Paths.

23. "Desire realm," Wikipedia, accessed August 22, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desire_realm.

24. "The Six Realms of Samsara," Tibetan Buddhist Encyclopedia.

25. "2.4. The Six Buddhist Realms of Existence," Wisdom Library, accessed August 22, 2025, https://www.wisdomlib.org/buddhism/essay/animals-in-buddhism/d/doc1460942.html.

26. "Desire realm," Wikipedia.

27. "2.4. The Six Buddhist Realms of Existence," Wisdom Library.

28. Ibid.

29. Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism, 72-75.

30. "Six Paths," Wikipedia.

31. "2.4. The Six Buddhist Realms of Existence," Wisdom Library.

32. "Desire realm," Wikipedia.

33. "2.4. The Six Buddhist Realms of Existence," Wisdom Library.

34. "Deva (Buddhism)," Wikipedia, accessed August 22, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deva_(Buddhism).

35. "Teacher of the Devas," Access to Insight, accessed August 22, 2025, https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/jootla/wheel414.html.

36. "Deva (Buddhism)," Wikipedia.

37. "Saṃsāra (Buddhism)," Wikipedia.

38. "Deva (Buddhism)," Wikipedia.

39. "Teacher of the Devas," Access to Insight.

40. "The Thirty-one Planes of Existence," Access to Insight, accessed August 22, 2025, https://www.accesstoinsight.org/ptf/dhamma/sagga/loka.html.

41. "Buddhist cosmology," Wikipedia, accessed August 22, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_cosmology.

42. "Wh462 — Four Planes of Existence," Buddhist Publication Society, accessed August 22, 2025, https://www.bps.lk/olib/wh/wh462_Na-Rangsi_Four-Planes-of-Existence-in-Theravada-Buddhism.html.

43. "Buddhist cosmology," Wikipedia.

44. Ibid.

45. "The Thirty-one Planes of Existence," Access to Insight.

46. Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism, 78-80.

47. "2.4. The Six Buddhist Realms of Existence," Wisdom Library.

48. "Saṃsāra (Buddhism)," Wikipedia.

49. "Desire realm," Wikipedia.

50. "Buddhist cosmology of the Theravada school," Tibetan Buddhist Encyclopedia, accessed August 22, 2025, https://tibetanbuddhistencyclopedia.com/en/index.php/Buddhist_cosmology_of_the_Theravada_school.

51. Buddhaghosa, The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga), trans. Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1991), 220-235.

52. "Six Paths," Wikipedia.

53. Chögyam Trungpa, The Tibetan Book of the Dead: The Great Liberation through Hearing in the Bardo (Berkeley: Shambhala Publications, 1975), 34-39.

54. Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism, 195-210.

55. Keown, Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction, 52-58.

56. Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism, 85-89.

57. Ibid.

58. Ibid.

59. Keown, Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction, 52-55.

60. Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism, 198-203.

61. Ibid.

62. Gethin, The Foundations of Buddhism, 170-175.

63. Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism, 203-207.

64. Ibid.

65. "2.4. The Six Buddhist Realms of Existence," Wisdom Library.

66. "Impermanence (Buddhism)," Wikipedia.

67. "Desire realm," Wikipedia.

68. "Impermanence (Buddhism)," Wikipedia.

69. Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism, 80-82.

---

Bibliography

Primary Sources

Bhikkhu Bodhi, trans. The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2000.

Buddhaghosa. The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga). Translated by Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1991.

"Petavatthu: Stories of the Hungry Ghosts." Access to Insight. Accessed August 22, 2025. https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/kn/pv/index.html.

"The Thirty-one Planes of Existence." Access to Insight. Accessed August 22, 2025. https://www.accesstoinsight.org/ptf/dhamma/sagga/loka.html.

Secondary Sources

Gethin, Rupert. The Foundations of Buddhism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.

Harvey, Peter. An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013.

Keown, Damien. Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.

Trungpa, Chögyam. The Tibetan Book of the Dead: The Great Liberation through Hearing in the Bardo. Berkeley: Shambhala Publications, 1975.

Academic Articles and Essays

"Teacher of the Devas." Access to Insight. Accessed August 22, 2025. https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/jootla/wheel414.html.

"Wh462 — Four Planes of Existence." Buddhist Publication Society. Accessed August 22, 2025. https://www.bps.lk/olib/wh/wh462_Na-Rangsi_Four-Planes-of-Existence-in-Theravada-Buddhism.html.

"2.4. The Six Buddhist Realms of Existence." Wisdom Library. Accessed August 22, 2025. https://www.wisdomlib.org/buddhism/essay/animals-in-buddhism/d/doc1460942.html.

Encyclopedic and Reference Sources

"Buddhist cosmology." Wikipedia. Accessed August 22, 2025. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_cosmology.

"Buddhist cosmology of the Theravada school." Tibetan Buddhist Encyclopedia. Accessed August 22, 2025. https://tibetanbuddhistencyclopedia.com/en/index.php/Buddhist_cosmology_of_the_Theravada_school.

"Deva (Buddhism)." Wikipedia. Accessed August 22, 2025. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deva_(Buddhism).

"Desire realm." Wikipedia. Accessed August 22, 2025. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desire_realm.

"Hungry ghost." Wikipedia. Accessed August 22, 2025. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost.

"Impermanence (Buddhism)." Wikipedia. Accessed August 22, 2025. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impermanence_(Buddhism).

"Naraka," Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Accessed August 22, 2025. https://encyclopediaofbuddhism.org/wiki/Naraka.

"Naraka (Buddhism)." Wikipedia. Accessed August 22, 2025. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naraka_(Buddhism).

"Preta." New World Encyclopedia. Accessed August 22, 2025. https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Preta.

"Saṃsāra (Buddhism)." Wikipedia. Accessed August 22, 2025. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saṃsāra_(Buddhism).

"Six Paths." Wikipedia. Accessed August 22, 2025. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six_Paths.

"The Six Realms of Samsara." Tibetan Buddhist Encyclopedia. Accessed August 22, 2025. http://tibetanbuddhistencyclopedia.com/en/index.php/The_Six_Realms_of_Samsara.

Specialized Studies and Articles

"Guide to the Buddhist Hell Realm." Learn Religions. Accessed August 22, 2025. https://www.learnreligions.com/buddhist-hell-450118.

"Hungry Ghosts: their History and Origin." Kashgar. Accessed August 22, 2025. https://kashgar.com.au/blogs/tribal-culture/hungry-ghosts-their-history-and-origin.

"Naraka in Buddhism." Buddha Statues. Accessed August 22, 2025. https://www.buddha-statues.co.uk/blog/naraka-in-buddhism/.

"Naraka Part I: The 8 'Major Hells' in Buddhism & Their Gruesome Punishments." Medium. Accessed August 22, 2025. https://medium.com/the-edge-of-the-world/naraka-part-i-the-8-major-hells-in-buddhism-their-gruesome-punishments-956486ce0c1e.

"What Are Hungry Ghosts?" Buddhism A–Z, Lions Roar. Accessed August 22, 2025. https://www.lionsroar.com/buddhism/hungry-ghosts/.

"What are Hungry Ghosts? Appearance, Types and Festival." Lotus Buddhas. Accessed August 22, 2025. https://lotusbuddhas.com/what-are-hungry-ghosts.html.

Summary

Buddhist Cosmology and Ethics: Understanding the Six Realms and the Path to Liberation

Author: [Bhante Sumitta]
Category: Buddhist Teachings, Cosmology, Ethics

Summary

This comprehensive article explores one of Buddhism's most fundamental teachings: the six realms of existence and their relationship to ethical conduct and liberation. Drawing from canonical sources including the Pali Canon and contemporary Buddhist scholarship, this piece offers both traditional and modern perspectives on Buddhist cosmology.

Key Topics Covered:

The Six Realms of Existence:

• Lower Realms (driven by greed, hatred, delusion): Hell beings experiencing extreme suffering, hungry ghosts trapped in insatiable desire, and animals limited by ignorance
• Higher Realms (arising from better motivations): Humans with the unique capacity for Awakening, titans consumed by envy and competition, and gods enjoying temporary pleasures but hindered by pride

The Root Causes of Rebirth: The article examines how the three mental poisons—greed, hatred, and delusion—drive actions that perpetuate the cycle of rebirth, while better motivations with self-consciousness can lead to more favorable rebirths.

Practical Ethics for Liberation:

• Five Precepts for lay practitioners
• Ten Good and Bad Courses of Action
• The three fundamental mental states: attraction/attachment, aversion/anger, and indifference/ignorance

Traditional vs. Modern Interpretations: Explores how the six realms can be understood both as literal cosmological realities and as psychological states reflecting emotional patterns we experience in daily life.

Why This Matters: This teaching reveals that all beings are trapped in a cycle of suffering across various realms of existence, with the human realm offering the unique opportunity to achieve complete liberation through understanding the Dharma and practicing ethical conduct.

Who Should Read This

• Buddhist practitioners seeking deeper understanding of cosmology and ethics
• Students of comparative religion and philosophy
• Anyone interested in Buddhist psychology and the relationship between actions and consequences
• Meditation practitioners wanting to understand the broader context of their practice

Key Takeaway

While Buddhist cosmology might initially seem like ancient mythology, it provides profound insights into human psychology and offers a practical framework for ethical living. Whether interpreted literally or symbolically, the six realms teach us that lasting happiness cannot be found in any conditioned existence—only through following the Buddha's path to liberation can we find true peace and freedom from suffering.

Article Length: Approximately 6,000 words
Reading Time: 20-25 minutes
Citations: 69 scholarly and canonical sources

---

This article is part of our ongoing series exploring fundamental Buddhist teachings. For more in-depth articles on Buddhist philosophy, meditation, and practice, visit our [Teachings Archive].